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What is God?
[News-and-Society:Religion] Physics was my best subject in highschool, and generally I am interested in these things. I'm obviously also interested in God, and the universe, and the existence of all things and their mutual interaction between each other. So my thoughts can tend to wander on all these. Below is a theory/story I developed combining all the thoughts above and which would explain what I perceive God is and his interaction with all things.

Physics - Electricity and Magnetism
[Reference-and-Education:Science] With the addition of energy, atoms can either release or gain new electrons, where the addition of energy creates a positive charge within the atom and a loss of energy creates a negatively charged atom. In such cases the atom is transformed into a charged ion. Ions which have few electrons attract to themselves loose electrons, where ions with an excess of electrons repel loose electrons. These phenomena are referred to as electrical charges.

Physics - Magnetism and How it Works
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Since our beginnings, mankind has always known about magnets and knew that, based on their position, magnets can either attract or repel one another and that they attract objects made out of iron. However, beforehand, no one could explain why it was like this or could not think how to make practical use out of them. Today however, we know that there are magnetic areas of microscopic size in many substances. If they are oriented identically, they become magnetic, creating around themselves a magnetic field. If we place such an object in close proximity to another magnetic object, they either attract or repel one another, depending on whether the respective magnetic fields are identically or oppositely oriented.

Electrical Circuits and the Effects of Current
[Reference-and-Education:Science] An electric circuit (also referred to as electrical make) is a closed circuit of electrical conductors in which a current of electricity flows from one or more charged sources. Negatively charged electrons move within these conductors using electrostatic forces. The intensity of the current running through the circuit depends on the charged source, the device consuming the energy, the cross-sectional size and length of the conductor, and the temperature and nature of the substance the conductor is composed of. A simple electrical circuit is made up of a source (a battery or other source producing electrical energy, such as a generator), a consuming appliance which, using this electrical current, executes some work (such as the light that a light bulb emits), and the wire (conductive substance) which joins the various components of the electrical circuit.

Physics - Current and Charge
[Reference-and-Education:Science] An atom becomes charged when the number of electrons within it change. An atom is made up of electrically charged ions and an electron has the smallest, indivisible charge, called the elementary charge. Every other charge should be considered as a multiple of the elementary charge. There is always an electrostatic field associated with an electrical charge. If the object containing the electrical charge is moved into close proximity with another object, the charge within its molecules is either repelled away from or attracted to the other object, depending on whether they have current or nonconcurrent (same or opposite) charges.

Electrical Circuits - Quantities and Laws
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The magnitude of a current is directly proportion to the size of its voltage. A good conductor offers only a small amount of resistance and, in such conductors, a small amount of voltage can generate a large amount of current.

Physics - Electrical Voltage and Resistance
[Reference-and-Education:Science] According to Ohm's law, an electrical circuit which would not offer any resistance would have the capacity to hold a current of unlimited size. But nothing of the sort happens when we join a positive and negative electrical circuit with a piece of wire. Instead, a short circuit occurs which can cause great harm. Therefore, resistance is always necessary for regulating the size of an electrical current passing through an electrical circuit.

Physics - Parallel and Series Connection
[Reference-and-Education:Science] All simple electrical circuits can be classified according to one of two groups, depending on how they are connected. When connected one after another, referred to as a series connection, the electrically connected components are connected in such a way that the output terminal of one component is connected to the input terminal of another component. In such cases, there are no branch lines and the same current passes through all of the components within the circuit. This type of series connection is the simplest method of putting together an electrical circuit.

Physics - Electricity in the Home
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Three separate conductors are connected to each electrical circuit found in the home: two are operational, which conduct the electricity, and one acts as a protective grounding conductor (neutral grounding is used in the Czech Republic, where the neutral conductor is connected to a protective plug located in the socket, for which reason only two conductors are connected to the socket). There are also circuit breaker switches and safety fuses used in domestic electrical circuits. We are familiar with fuses, which respond to overloading of electricity. Such fuses are made from a non-conductive shell and from a metal wire through which the current within the main electrical circuit passes through. If the current gets too high, the wire within the fuse melts, which breaks the circuit and stops current from passing through it. This protects the circuit within the home from the unwanted effects of electrical overloading, which could lead to such damages as burnt wiring and fire outbreaks. Protective switches are also in use and which react very quickly, protecting electrical devices against current surges.

A Charge and Its Movement in a Magnetic Field
[Reference-and-Education:Science] A magnetic field exists around every magnet and electrical conductor, or anywhere else where one can observe the effects of a magnetic force. The position and size of a magnetic field can be explained using lines of force (within a magnetic field), and a system of lines of force can be depicted using iron filings.

Physics - Transformers and Generators
[Reference-and-Education:Science] A generator is a machine which, with the help of magnetic induction, converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. This is possible by the revolution of coils in a magnetic field (a generator with exterior fields) or by the revolution of electromagnets around a fixed coil (a generator with internal fields). Generators usually generate alternating current, which may, using various devices, be converted into direct current. Generators work in the opposite manner as electrical motors, although an electrical motor can operate in the same way as a generator.

Physics - Electronics and Their Use in Our Lives
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Electronics is a branch of physics which builds further on the knowledge gained in electrical technology. Electronics studies the movement of electrons controlled under an electric or magnetic field, electrical current, light, and so on. The importance of electronic components lies in the fact that, among other matters, they take the place of mechanically moving parts. This leads to a longer shelf life of an appliance, its faster speed, lower use of energy, and the smaller amount of room that it takes up. This is just one example of the ongoing miniaturisation taking place around us.

Physics - Semiconductors and Semiconductor Diodes
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Semiconductors are made from materials whose electrical resistance is something between that of a conductor and a non-conductor. The resistance of semiconductors can be affected by changes in temperature or by added "impurities". By impurities it means that other substances have been added to the material. According to what the final mixture is, the semiconductors are labelled as semiconductors of type-n or type-t. The negative layer (n) is created from foreign atoms and is characterised by a sufficient number of electrons. Within this layer, free electrons are able to move and allow the flow of current.

Physics - Transistors and Their Value in Our Lives
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The name of transistor is drawn from the English words of Transfer and resistor and describes transfer resistance. Transistors operate as controlling resistors and control both voltage and current in most electrical circuits. A transistor is made up of various semiconductor layers of type n and p. Transistors are classified as biopolar and unipolar. With bipolar transistors, only a small amount of current passes through its central section (the base), which controls the transfer of a much greater amount of current between two other parts - emitters and collectors. If no current passes between the base and the emitter (the base's current), no current also passes between the collector and the emitter (collector's current). Any small current passing through the base transfers electron charge carriers to the base layer and makes it conductive, enabling a large collector current to pass through.

Physics - Control and Regulation
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Electric appliances and equipment are rarely constructed to perform immediately after being plugged into an electrical socket. A simple example of some device which operates immediately in this manner are Christmas lights. Most devices are designed for single, more or less complicated tasks or otherwise for multiple functions. For this reason, the operation of the device must be controlled, switched on or off, and regulated. The most simple controlling device is the on/off switch. It is so common in fact that we do not even consider it a controlling element. The task of a switch is to turn a current on or off, or otherwise to reverse it.

Physics - Alternative Sources of Energy
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Mostly fossil fuels have been used from the start of the industrial era. Based on various studies, which differ based on the assumption of a stagnating, declining or increasing world consumption of energy, fossil fuels should run out within 40 to 200 years. With this in mind and while considering that the use of such conventional or atomic fuels poses a risk for both mankind and nature, these sources of energy should be gradually replaced with alternative sources which, contrary to conventional sources of energy, should not harm nature. If so, then only minimally.

Problems with Using Nuclear Energy
[Reference-and-Education:Science] In principle, nuclear energy, whose share of covering the world's energy needs presently amounts to around 5%, is one of the best methods how we can presently produce energy. Even so, this form of energy has many great risks for mankind and the environment. The wasteful consequences of nuclear energy is not only in its military use, as was proven following the atomic bomb dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. But, as was shown in the nuclear power plant accident in Chernobyl in 1986, the peaceful use of nuclear energy also carries with it its unexpected risks. Not only did thousands of people die immediately following the reactor's failure but also due to the cancer illnesses clearly resulting from this accident. Besides this, there is a clear rise in the number of miscarriages and birth defects in the area surrounding Chernobyl. At that time, a radioactive cloud engulfed all of Europe. Although the consequences of this accident were not directly visible in all parts of Europe, increased amounts of radiation were observed in many locations.

Physics - Nuclear Power Plants and Their Function in Our Lives
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Nuclear power plants work on the same principle as conventional power plants except for the fact that the heat energy required to convert the working medium into steam is not attained by burning fossil fuels but rather through the process of nuclear fission. During this reaction, a large amount of energy is released which the power plant uses to produce electrical current. Nuclear fission is attained by a nuclear reaction between heavy atomic nuclei and neutrons, which are elementary particles without electrical charge. In this nuclear reaction, the nuclei are broken down into two, releasing more neutrons in the process. These released neutrons then bombard into other atoms, resulting in further fragmentation. This process is referred to as a nuclear fission chain reaction. A condition for this chain reaction to occur is when neutrons freed during fission react with other atomic nuclei to create further nuclear fission. This resulting chain reaction continues until all available material has been broken down. Nuclear fuel, usually a mixture of various uranium isotopes, is cleaned during production and processed, usually into fuel rods.

Conventional Electrical Power Plants
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Conventional means that something is normal or commonly used. According to this definition, crude oil, natural gas and coal, which are used most often, are considered conventional sources of energy. Power plants which use these raw materials to generate electricity are referred to as conventional power stations and produce around 85% of all our energy needs. Crude oil, natural gas and coal are organic compounds used broadly in the previous development stages of countries. Coal is understood as a solid fuel rich in carbon or, in a broader sense of the word, the combustible remains of plants and other organic substances which have been transformed into brown to black sedimentary rock over a long geological period as part of a process of carbonisation.

Thermal Power Stations and Incinerators
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Thermal power stations and incinerators are electric power stations in which the chemical energy of solid, liquid or gaseous fuels, as with atomic energy, are transformed into electrical energy. At the outset, raw materials used in thermal power stations are burned and the working substance (medium) or water, which is under pressure in the boiler, is converted into steam. This steam then drives turbines, whose mechanical energy, at a later stage, is used to drive generators, which in turn generate electrical energy. The electrical current generated in this manner eventually attains its desired force and voltage through the use of transformers. Any waste heat which may be created during this process is turned into liquid by cooling within condensers and sent back to the boiler. The condensing heat which is generated through this process can also be used.

Energy - The Basic Concept in Natural Science and Technology
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Fundamental physical laws state that all mass is made from energy. There is also a firm rule that, within a closed system, such as our world, there is a given amount of energy which cannot be created nor destroyed but rather only transformed from one form into another. The differing forms of energy, such as mechanical, electrical, electromagnetic, kinetic, thermal or nuclear energy, are interchangeable and can be transformed between each other. At the same time, only a part of the primary energy can be transformed into so-called secondary energy. A large part of primary energy is lost or wasted as unusable energy, for example in the form of wasted heat, to the surrounding environment. It is possible to change secondary energy back into its original state but even this process is subject to transformation losses. Energy losses are even noticeable during the transport of energy and such losses are referred to as transport losses.

Physics - Energy and Its Properties
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The word energy is derived from the Greek word of energeia, which refers to an acting force. Energy is work stored in a system or the capacity to perform such work. It is constant like an atom's mass and cannot be created nor destroyed. Energy is used to describe various phenomena and, from a physics point of view, energy is the basic component of every matter. Not only can energy occur in many forms, such as kinetic, heat, mechanical, electrical or nuclear energy, but it can also change forms. The work executed by a certain system or into which a certain amount of energy is inputted is measured in joules (J) or kilowatt-hours (kWh).

Physics - The Concept of Heat Transfer
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Heat can be transferred from one substance to another, a phenomenon used for example during the transfer of heat. By this we understand such a transfer of heat between adjacent lying particles. Particles from the warmer part of a substance transfer their kinetic energy by colliding into particles located in the cooler area. The degree to which heat energy can be transferred depends on heat conductivity (the ability to transfer heat). For example, metals are good conductors of heat but wood is a very poor conductor of heat. Another method of how heat can be transferred is through heat radiation. In this way, heat transfers without the need for other substances. Yet another form of transferring heat is convection, which is accomplished through flowing gases or liquids.

Change in a Substance's Phase
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The phase of a substance is its aggregate state. There are three possible phases which substances may have: solid, liquid and gaseous states. Almost all substances can be found in any one of these phases. The phase at which a substance may be found depends on its temperature, pressure and density. Each substance has two critical temperatures where it changes its phase. Besides its phases, each substance can also be described according to other criteria: whether they are a crystal, amorphous or gaseous. Amorphous substances are generally liquid substances whose elements are held together by a very weak attractive force, which are not fixed in a certain position and which are able to move around each other. Besides liquids, solid, noncrystal substances, such as glass, wax and sealing wax, can be considered as amorphous substances and are sometimes referred to as subcooled substances.

The Heat Expansion of Objects
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Every object reacts differently to heat, depending on the object's density, its composition and the pressure which acts on it. By rule, solid objects have a higher density than do liquids and gases because the atoms within solid objects are closer together and work stronger forces on one another. The density of solid objects is based on attracting forces acting between individual particles, atoms or molecules, within the object. If some physical force, such as pressure, acts on an object, these particles come closer to one another. This results in an opposing force, which we refer to as pressure. On the other hand, when we pull on a substance, the particles become farther apart, creating a force we refer to as stress.

Physics - Temperature and Its Properties
[Reference-and-Education:Science] If we want to describe the state of some substance, we must also mention its temperature. Temperature measures the amount of heat, where heat is understood as the kinetic (moving) energy of atoms and molecules. The following law applies here: the greater the kinetic energy of its particles, the higher the temperature of a substance.

Physics - Heat and Its Properties
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Heat is a form of energy which creates a certain feeling among humans perceived as heat. The definition of heat is the kinetic (moving) energy of atoms and molecules, which all matter is made of. The greater the quantity of energy the greater the level of heat. By adding energy we increase the energy potential of atoms or molecules, which results in an increase in heat. Temperature is an important factor in the modification and reactive ability of all substances. Almost all substances can be found in either solid, liquid or gaseous form, something referred to as states of aggregation or phase.

Physics - The Fascinating World of Spectral Colours
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The light spectrum is made up of a rich assortment of colours which result when white light passes through a glass prism, during which it breaks up into different wave lengths. These various wave lengths, ranging between 380 and 780 nm, are individually visible to the human eye in their different colours, from blue to green, yellow and red. The colour spectrum is also emitted by heated solid and liquid substances. Colour is therefore a visible phenomenon which occurs as a result of different wave lengths of light. Each wave length generates a certain colour within the human eye, where an object appears to us as colourful when light falling on it reflects only certain wave lengths. Therefore, an object which we perceive as red only reflects the red part of the spectrum. An object which reflects all light rays falling on it appears white to us, where an object which does not reflect any or absorbs all light rays falling on it appears to us as black. If some light sources emit only a portion of the colour spectrum, they colour an object differently, such as colour reflectors in a discotheque.

Physics - The Telescope and What It's Good For
[Reference-and-Education:Astronomy] Telescopes or binoculars enable us to observe objects located at a very far distance. From the point of view of optics, microscopes also belong to the family of telescopes. With microscopes, we are able to view very small objects, often not visible to the human eye. There are many types of telescopes. The Dutch or Galileo's telescope uses a converging lens with a large focal point distance for the objective (the lens closest to the observed object) and a diverging lens for the ocular lens (the lens located closest to our eye) which, together, offer the observer a direct (unreversed) image of the object. Telescopes of this type are often constructed in duplicate and in which the flow of light rays are divided prior to their entry into the ocular but diverted to two separate oculars, a design used for opera viewers or binoculars (lesser magnification).

Optical Equipment and The Human Eye
[Reference-and-Education:Science] A magnifying glass is a converging lens which allows us to see an object or a part of it as if it was much larger. Compared to the human eye, these converging lenses have a very short focal distance, making it possible to increase the visual angle. With a magnifying glass, an object can be visually increased in size by as much as 20 to 25 times. To magnify an object more than this, we need a set of lenses, such as in a microscope.

Physics - Photographic Equipment
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Photographic equipment, or cameras, are devices used to make photographs. A camera is made of the following parts: a case used to prevent light from passing through it, equipment used to save on and shift material sensitive to light (plate, film), a lens, a stop, a shutter, and a view finder to help aim the camera when taking a picture. The lens of a camera is made up of a set of several types of lenses which make it possible to create a photograph. At present, the film used for taking pictures is covered with a thin layer of emulsion sensitive to light (sensitive layer) which registers differences between various brightnesses created by an optical image. The light beams which fall on the emulsion as a result of their reflection (or emission) from various points on an object (on which the camera is aimed) result in an uneven dissolution of silver bromides. During this dissolution, electrons are removed from halogen ions. After chemical processing, an image is formed on the film, as such creating a negative from which copies can be made.

Physics - The Eye and Its Workings
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The eye is one of the most important of the sensory organs and enables a person to orient itself in its surroundings. The construction and functioning of the human eye is similar to a photographic camera. From a physics perspective, the most important parts of the human eye are the iris, the lens and the retina. The retina is actually an optic organ made up of millions of special cells, around 7 million cones and 125 million stamen, which respond selectively to certain wave lengths of light radiation. Under sufficient lighting, cones enable us to view different colours and to differentiate between sharp contours. Stamen on the other hand allow us to see when it is darker and sees in only grey scales. Stamen and cones capture light and convert it into signals sent to the brain, which processes and organises these signals. On the retina itself, the images viewed actually come out as upside down (the brain then converts the image back to a form we can understand).

Physics - Lenses and Their Use in Our Lives
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Only based on exact knowledge of the effect and characteristics of lenses and light refraction are we able to understand and construct such optical instruments as cameras, microscopes and photocopiers. The lenses or the entire systems which use them are the foundation of optical instruments. In optics, a lens is understood as a transparent object made of glass or other, suitable synthetic material. When a light ray falls on a lens, it becomes refracted, meaning, that its direction and speed of travel changes, dependent on the shape of the lens.

Physics - The Law of Light Refraction
[Reference-and-Education:Science] By refraction we understand the change in the direction and speed of light waves which occurs when the waves move from one environment into another or when they hit their surface boundary. For example, when light rays fall on the surface boundary between air and water, a portion of the rays reflect where another portion continues on into the other environment, which is the water. But the direction of the light rays changes in this second environment, something referred to as light refraction. The normal (the perpendicular line at the point of impact of the light ray on the surface boundary) at the location of the light ray's impact on the surface boundary is called the perpendicular or normal line of impact and the angle between the impacting ray and the normal is called the angle of impact. The angle between the refracted ray and the normal line of impact is called the angle of refraction.

Laws of Light Reflection
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The reflection of light rays can be easily demonstrated. For example, if a light ray falls on a flat mirror, the ray is reflected. The line perpendicular to the surface of a flat surface jutting out from the point of impact of a light ray is referred to as the perpendicular line of impact, or the normal. The angle at which the light ray hits the surface compared to the normal or the perpendicular line of impact is called the angle of impact and the angle between the reflecting ray and the normal is called the angle of reflection. By reflecting light, a flat mirror creates an image of the object which has the same size and distance as the object itself. However, the image created in this manner is opposite to that of reality, meaning that the left side becomes the right and the right left.

Physics - Reflection of Light
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The reflection of light is when a wave of light does not pass through the boundary surface between two optical environments but rather reflects back into the space of the originating environment. With certain exceptions (refer below), each object onto which light rays fall reflects light. However, the object absorbs a portion of the light rays. The greater the reflection and lesser the absorption of light, the clearer we are able to view the object. Only once the reflected light arrives to us do we actually see the object. Without the physical characteristic of light reflection, we would not be able to see at all. The clearest example of how light reflection allows us to see is glass.

Physics - The Science of Light Travel
[Reference-and-Education:Science] (Visible) light is made of certain light frequencies and wave lengths in the form of electromagnetic radiation and which are visible to the human eye. The speed of light depends on the environment it passes through and on the frequency of the light itself. In an empty space, light travels in a straight line at 300,000 km/sec, which means it takes it about 8 minutes to travel the distance from the sun to the earth. This speed, which is almost unimaginable, was never before surpassed, although it is the subject of many physical experiments.

Physics - Optics and Its Use in Our Lives
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Physics studies light from three points of view, for which reason there are three categories: optic waves, which studies the wave characteristics of radiation; geometric optics, which studies the laws of the speed of linear radiation; and quantum optics, which examines the elementary characteristics of radiation. Geometric optics is based on the assumption that light travels in a straight line, definable using geometric methods. Wave optics perceives light radiation in terms of waves, where quantum physics looks at how light is made of a flow of small particles named corpuscles, as such adopting a quantum character.

Physics - Simple Motions
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Motion is a basic activity of a human. Our muscles, heart and lungs continue to move even while we sleep. From a physical point of view, motion is each change in an object's location. Motion, or movement, must be understood as a relative concept in that no absolute reference system exists. For example, an object in a car is considered as in a still state when compared to the car. A road is considered in a still state relating to the earth, but the earth revolves around the sun while the sun circulates within the milky way.

Acoustics and the Art of Sound
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Acoustics (in Greek "akustikos", which relates to the act of listening) is concerned with sound, for which reason it has become part of the study of the characteristics and spread of waves or vibrations. The main point of interest in acoustics is vibrations between the lower end of sound waves we hear (16 Hz) and the upper end (20,000 Hz). Vibrations are caused by the concurrent effect of forces which deviate an object from its calm or balanced stated and other forces which work to bring an object to its balanced state. Each vibration is made up of a constant back and forth movement. If the vibration spreads or travels further, we refer to them as waves. The speed of sound is understood as the speed that it travels in the form of sound waves. However, this value varies depending what substance it pass through. The unit of measurement of a vibration's frequency is the herz (Hz). With the rippling of these waves, there is a transformation of energy but not mass.

Mechanics of Liquids and Gases
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Solid objects, liquids and gases differ in the bonds they have between their particles. In solid objects, these bonds are very strong, where the particles within the object are not able to move and are only able to vibrate around their central position. With liquids, these bonds are looser, for which reason these substances are fluid. Even so, they still have a firmer structure than do gases. The bond of particles in liquids is called cohesion. This creates surface tension on the water which, for example, pulls small amounts of water into round shapes - drops. The surface of these drops are then flattened due to the force of gravity. With gases, the movement of particles is greater than the bonding forces working on them, for which reason they fill all enclosed areas they happen to be located in.

Simple Machinery and Its Different Types
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Simple machinery is equipment which is able to convert forces and change their size and/or direction. We use the expression of "simple machinery" more often to label simple mechanic aids than complex machinery. Simple machinery was first invented by man long ago and helped mankind simplify its work and daily tasks. For us, it may be a commonplace manner but, when first developed, may have represented revolutionary advancement in work aids. In principle, the main function of all such machinery is that it simplifies certain work, where the amount of work the user may exert is less but the end result is the same. With machinery, the exertion of force is limited or the direction of our exerted force is changed.

Basic Concepts of Mechanics
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The word mechanics is derived from a Greek word which means something to the degree of "trade art". Mechanics is the oldest branch of physics and whose basic concepts were studied by scholars in ancient times. Mechanics studies the movement of objects and the forces which work on them. In a broader sense of the word, classical mechanics covers such concepts as inertia and gravity, weight, speed, density, and even the structure of material. In the 20th century, quantum mechanics came into existence and studied substances on their atomic and molecular levels. Relativity mechanics, formulated by Einstein, also came into existence. However, to this degree, classical mechanics did not become any less valid but rather became more limited to the extent it was applicable. When an object is of sufficient size, such as when it is visible when looking out the window, and does not move at a very fast speed but rather moves much slower than the speed of light, the laws of classical mechanics is sufficient to describe and explain physical phenomena.

Mechanics and How Things Work
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Throughout history, mankind has constantly posed knew questions on itself, a task of which was the job of natural science. At first, people were interested in their surroundings, in the composition and functioning of the world they view around them and in its individual parts. It was in fact mechanics which resolved the first physical principles of this world. Mechanics was born out of physics and is the foundation for further discoveries and new theories. Mechanics concerns such issues as movement, inertia, mass, and the characteristics of mass. For the ancient person, the result of such considerations often became the simplest of machines.

Milestones in the Advancement of Physics
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Milestones in the Advancement of Physics - a list of major events in the history of physics. Ancient Greece - The first physical laws and theories. 400 B.C. - Demokritos believed that matter is made up of indivisible particles. 260 B.C. - Archimedes described pressure and the principles of torque.

Mathematics - The Concept of Dynamic Systems
[Reference-and-Education:Science] An example of a dynamic system is a flowing liquid, turbulence, a biological ecosystem or a meteorological model. Such systems often react immensely or unpredictably to the slightest error. Even though such systems do not operate randomly, every flow is influenced by certain factors (heat, height, air dampness, the soil's surface). However, these factors are so various and their affect so complex that the long term development of such a system is not easily forecastable because, for exact prediction, all factors with their mutual interaction must be known. In fact, this ideal example has a name: Laplace's demon. If we assumed there existed a demon capable of controlling all factors influencing the weather and capable of calculating the various factors, at any point, this demon would be capable of predicting the weather. In short, this means that what takes place within a complex system is not random but rather the result of definite conditions (the relation between cause and consequence applies here). However, from a certain point, these causal relationships remain inaccessible to us.

Mathematics - What Are Quadratic Equations
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The general formulation of quadratic equations is Ax2 + Bx + C = D, A ¹ 0. In this example, the unknowns appear as second powers but not has higher powers. The coefficients A, B, C and D are real numbers. We refer to Ax2 as a quadratic term, Bx as a linear term, and C as an absolute term. A normalised quadratic equations looks like x² + px + q = 0, is derived from the general formulation, and its formulation is attained by division using A (after which p = B/A and q = (C-D)/A). In the normalised state, the coefficient in the quadratic term is 1 and the right hand side equals 0. Usually, when solving such equations, we start with the normalised state.

Classical Physics - What it's About
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Following the research of Greek philosophers, further discussions concerning natural sciences were hindered by church dogmatism, a state which continued until late into the Middle Ages. At the start of the Renaissance period in the 16th century, physics was still based on a geocentric image of the world, where the world was perceived as the centre of the universe.

Physics - Greek Antiquity
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The history of physics started long before the year zero. Sometime in the sixth century B.C., scholars started moving away from the idea that all phenomena discovered in this world must be perceived as given by the will of God. Although the gods were still considered as the originators of all things, mankind started to consider that their intentions could be appropriated. By that time, mankind already understood complex mathematical methods which served to calculated the eclipse of the sun and eclipse of the moon, even though such discoveries were considered as religious secrets and taken advantage or even abused by the political forces of the time.

The History and Inventors of Physics
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The history of physics is characterised above all by separate discoveries and inventors. The first observation or consideration that a person can use fire to defend itself against animals, or otherwise for preparing food, or the fact that fire can by fanned or even transported elsewhere (such as by transporting red hot coals), was decisive for the further development of man's knowledge of nature. Such moments as the discovery how to control fire have hastened the development of the study of physics, where other influences have led the studies of physics down the wrong path (for example, people long believed that fire is made up of fire fibres called "flogiston"). Discoveries or the theses of many scientists, which were later proven as inadequate or even erred, served researchers in following generations as a basis for further discoveries which would advance civilisation significantly forward. The accession of industrialisation would not have been possible without, for example, the invention of the steam machine.

Physics - The General Concept
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The word physics is drawn from the Greek word of physika. Physika means "natural sciences", in which case physics may be understood as a science of natural phenomena. However, in today's time, such a definition would be considered only as introductory. Natural science has now been broken up into many subdivisions, where physics is only one of them. In essence, people, animals, and plants are considered as part of natural science, although the science which studies it is called biology. Should we therefore say that physics is a science of non-living things in nature? Even this would not be correct in that the elements of nature, such as hydrogen, carbon and so on, are definitely not living things in nature but are defined rather under chemistry.

Mathematics - The Concept of Chaos
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Chaos as we generally understand it has nothing to do with the mathematical concept of chaos. A typical example of chaos in a seemingly deterministic system (a system where cause and effect but not arbitrariness play a role) is developments on the stock exchange, changes the weather, a sudden traffic jam or the behaviour of quantum particles in physics. Mathematical chaos describes complex dynamic systems. These time dependent systems often behave quite sensitively and visibly chaotically to the degree that they are unforeseeable; this though while the individual components of the system are subject to explicit and natural laws. Since the 1970s, mathematics began to study chaotic systems. Non-linear equations serve to make computations in such systems. An important process when making such calculations is the fact that certain computational procedures continually repeat themselves, where the attained value is inserted into the original value in the same equation and the result of the equation used once again... Something similar to if we had to extract the root of 16, then 4, and then once again 2... This repeated use of the result as the original value in a certain computational procedure is referred to as iteration.

Mathematics - Analysis and What it is Used For
[Reference-and-Education:Science] This concept comes from the Greek word meaning enucleation or analysis. In mathematics, it is a very extensive field classified among higher mathematics and which includes such fields as differential and integral calculus, together referred to as infinitesimal calculus and the subfields which developed from it, such as differential and integral equations, differential and integral geometry and variable calculus. The characteristic of these fields is that they work with limiting values. The basis of analyses is arithmetics and algebra. The foundations of this field of mathematical thought was laid by the Greek Euclides (around 365-300) sometime in the year 340 B.C., in his 13th work of "Stocheia" (Elements), which became the cornerstone of mathematical education for almost 2,000 years. These described elements are actually foundations for introducing the infinitesimal way of thinking. Modern analysis studies primarily real and complex numbers, series, limiting values, functions and their derivatives, and integrals.

Mathematics - Numbers, Symbols and Numbering Systems
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Our oldest ancestors already knew how to count, such as the number of items, people or animals. They were either able to count objects and visualise numbers or were able to calculate the number of objects in a set. For simple counting, we use basic numbers or cardinal numbers, such as 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on. Serial or ordinal numbers determine order, such as 1st, 2nd or 3rd. Numbers and symbols are what mathematics is actually made of. There are many numerical and symbol systems in the world. We most often use the decimal system, which is most common. A number in the decimal system (although generally also in other numerical systems) is, by rule, made up of several numbers or digits, where the value of each digit depends on its position in the number. Digits within the decimal system are the Indian symbols for 1 to 0, which were adopted by al-Choresmi for the Arabian mathematical system.

The History of Mathematics
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Mathematics has been in people's lives from the beginning of time. Even in prehistory was a person required to perform mathematical tasks. The number of hunters, tools or members of a family were probably shown by the fingers on one or more hands, which is probably why today's number systems are based on the number 5 or 10. The second step probably arose out of the need to organise greater quantities: such as between young and older hunters, light or heavy weaponry, large or small hides. The first number appeared before the creation of letters. By making carvings into pieces of wood, traders and surveyors were able to make their calculations. Egyptian pyramids are in fact the result of the early use of mathematics.

Mathematics - The Concept
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Some of us may find mathematics difficult where others of us a passion. Mathematics can be found in our everyday lives and is a subject which we cannot avoid: in our purchases, in cooking ingredients, when making automobiles, the stock market - every time anything is given a value, measured or calculated. Its practical application is indisputable. So what is mathematics after all? Mathematics is a science of numbers, equations, functions and graphs and its most important components are the individual, purely mathematical fields, such as arithmetic, algebra, mathematical analyses and geometry. If we pose the question what at all mathematics is, we will certainly invoke a passionate discussion even among philosophers. As the Frenchman Jean-Baptist le Rond d¢ Alembert once said: "Mathematics is a type of game which helps us discover the secrets of nature but which keeps us in total darkness."

Geology - Solid Fuels and How We Depend on Them
[Reference-and-Education:Science] With the growing industrialisation, which started in the 18th century, the overall energy needs also grew. In addition to oil and natural gas, which are exploited on a larger scale since the 19th century, coal is a very important fuel today as it was in the past. More than 40 percent of energy used in western Europe is generated using coal.

Geology - Earth and Humans and Their Mutual Interaction
[Reference-and-Education:Science] For many thousands of years, humans were a component of natural ecological systems of the earth. When humans began to live a sedentary life, they developed through creation of cultural landscape new ecological systems of their own. When more than 500 000 years ago humans started to use fire, wood was the most important source of energy. Approximately in the 18th century humans began to use fossil fuels.

Hole in the Ozone Layer and the Greenhouse Effect
[News-and-Society:Environmental] When discussing the preservation of our earth, two major issues are always in the forefront: the destruction of the vital ozone layer and the question of the greenhouse effect, which may be causing the increase of temperature of the atmosphere. Ozone is an unstable gas (rather rare). It is a toxic form of oxygen.

Air Pollution and Dying Forests - The Tragedy of Human Involvement on Earth
[News-and-Society:Environmental] Air pollution means that certain substances that are released into the air, change its natural composition. It may happen by means of natural processes, such as volcanic explosion or biological decomposition, or by anthropogenic emissions, which are produced by burning of coal and heating oils in power plants or homes, or those produced by transportation or ibbindustrial manufacture.

Coasts and Shores - How We Depend On Them and How They Are Formed
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Coasts are ever-changing boundaries between the ocean and the land. With a length of almost half-a-million kilometres, the coastline is a very important area for people. More than a half of the world population lives within a few kilometres of a coast. Coasts change relatively quickly as far as their shape and boundaries are concerned.

Geology - The Origin of Rivers
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The source of every river is its spring. This is generally found in the higher grounds of a mountain range, which receive relatively large amounts of precipitation. The source of the river may also be sometimes the melting water of a glacier. When the ground is saturated with water, the water starts running down in tiny rivulets. In glacial regions, water usually collects in lakes and then flows down to the valley. Little channels and rivulets, first formed by the water, ultimately join into one water stream. This stream often uses troughs formed by glaciers or tectonic movements. This is how a riverbed is formed. As the speed of the water increases, the water carves deeper into the rock and soil. The riverbed is literally carved out by sand and gravel washed out by water. This process is called abrasion. Valleys with more or less sloping walls form alongside the trough or channel. Even the hardest rocks in the vicinity of the riverbed may be eroded by the constant movement of washed out stones.

Geology - The Origin and Types of Lakes
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Lakes are commonly defined as accumulation of water in a delimited depression or depressed surface on a generally impermeable floor. We often talk about inland lakes, in order to distinguish them from the word "sea." The speed of outflow of water from a lake is so low, that a person may not even notice it, which leads to the name of standing water. Smaller lakes are called, depending on the type, pool, pond, swamp, or shallow lake. Large lakes are sometimes called "sea," for example, Dead Sea. Inland lakes, with a total of 2.5 million square kilometres, occupy 1.8 percent of the land surface. The largest European inland lake is Lake Ladoga in Russia. The world's largest lake without outflow is the Caspian Sea.

Geology - The Atmosphere and Weather
[News-and-Society:Weather] Atmosphere is the outer cover of the earth. It envelops the solid earth and is linked to it by the earth's gravity. As a result of the heat of the sun, it is in constant motion. These constant changes of air masses relate to our weather. The atmosphere consists of approximately 78 percent of nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.9 percent argon, and approximately 0.04 of carbon dioxide. In addition, there are traces of neon, hydrogen, helium, ozone, methane, and oxides of nitrogen. In the course of history of the earth, this cover had undergone many changes. In the beginning, that is to say, more than 4.5 billion years ago, the atmosphere contained mostly hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide.

Geology - The Structure of the Atmosphere
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The atmosphere (Greek: vapour cone) envelopes the earth like a giant protective shield. The atmosphere is attracted and trapped by the earth's gravity and follows the earth in all its rotations. It extends to an altitude of 2400 kilometres. In view of the different processes and ratios in the air, it is divided into certain layers, or spheres. Troposphere, stratosphere, and ionosphere are parts of the interior atmosphere, while exosphere belongs to the exterior atmosphere.

Our Weather and How Clouds Form
[News-and-Society:Weather] Clouds are an important component of the hydrological cycle. The heat of the sun evaporates daily enormous amounts of water from both the oceans and the continents. This water rises in the form of vapour into the atmosphere. In this way, over 400 billion tonnes of water are moved every year. The shape and the altitude of the clouds are indicators of air temperature and humidity. The movement of the clouds indicates the direction of the wind and its speed. It is often possible arrive at an accurate weather forecast by correctly interpreting the behaviour of the clouds.

Different Cloud Types in Our Weather
[News-and-Society:Weather] Although the clouds in the sky seem to be very different, it is possible to classify them by common characteristics into several categories. In 1803, amateur meteorologist Luke Howard (1772-1864) put together a table for distinguishing types of clouds and gave them Latin names. The classification, which is based on the shape and altitude of the clouds, gives us the following groups: high clouds, middle clouds, and low clouds. High clouds are grouped together under a general name of "cirrus." This group includes cirrus, cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus. In temperate geographical latitudes, these clouds move in altitudes of between 5 and 13 kilometres, in the tropics, the altitude is between 6 and 18 kilometres, while in the polar regions it is between 3 and 8 kilometres.

Rain, Snow and Hail - Our Ever Changing Weather
[News-and-Society:Weather] In meteorology, the condensation and separation of the atmospheric water vapour as rain, snow, hail, fog, is called precipitation. We distinguish falling precipitation such as rain or snow, deposited precipitation, such as dew or fog, and accumulated precipitation in the form of hail or snow. When large clouds rise, they soon reach altitudes where temperatures are below freezing. These clouds are made up of ice crystals, water vapour, and droplets of water which, in spite of the below-freezing temperature have not yet crystallised into ice. Tiny small crystals coalesce into snowflakes, which fall to the ground. Snowflakes fall in the form of dry snow to the warm ground. If the snowflakes have to pass through a warmer layer of air, they melt and change into rain.

Thunderstorms - Their Formation and How They Work
[News-and-Society:Weather] A thunderstorm is a meteorological phenomenon, where the air electricity discharges between the clouds or into the ground. This occurs in the form of lightning and thunder, often accompanied by heavy precipitation and high winds. When the thunderstorm forms due to high heat in the air layers near the earth's surface in combination with high humidity, we classify it as a heat storm. This type of thunderstorms occurs mainly in summertime in the afternoon. Frontal thunderstorms occur due to the transition between two different air masses, for example, when upper air layers cool down on one front due to the penetration of cold air masses. When a thunderstorm is far away, we see only lightning, a lightning storm, but hear no thunder.

The Wind And Its Effects On Geology
[News-and-Society:Weather] Winds are in general horizontally moving air currents. Winds originate in the atmosphere as a result of the difference in air pressure as well as due to temperature fluctuation. Coriolis force (the bending or deviating force of the earth's rotation) bends winds in the northern hemisphere to the right, and in the southern hemisphere to the left. Winds are a consequence of different pressure of neighbouring air masses. Dense air of the area of high pressure flows into the less dense and therefore lighter air of the area of low pressure. When the difference increases, the wind grows stronger. Cold front forms when cold air collides with warm air. Cold air slides under its warm neighbour and pushes it upwards.

Geology - Windstorms and How They Work
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Windstorms are violent, generally hurricane-type air turbulences, which occur mostly in the tropic regions. These tropical storms reach high speeds. Their names change according to the individual tropical region. In the Caribbean and the region of the West Indies, they are called hurricanes. In the Bay of Bengal, it is a cyclone, in the Japanese and Chinese waters they are called typhoon, while in Australia their name is willy-willy. However, their damaging, catastrophic force is the same in all the affected coastal regions. Tropical storms form over the tropical seas, where the surface temperature of the ocean is at least 27 degrees Celsius. Their characteristic is a spiralling wind vortex moving at a high speed of up to 300 kilometres per hour.

Geology - Climate Zones
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a given moment in relation to wind, temperature, precipitation, and cloudiness. Observing the weather changes during a prolonged period of time yields mean values, permitting the classification of different climate zones. The regions of similar climate zones may be separated by great spatial distances. Classification into individual climate zones helps describe and compare different ecosystems and landscapes. The climate depends first of all on the angle at which the earth is heated by the sun. For example, we know that around the equator the temperatures are high, whereas at the poles the temperatures are low. However, this does not mean that regions situated at the same latitude belong to the same climate zone. Although the angle of the sunlight may be the same, there are other important factors that have an impact on the climate.

Natural Phenomena In Geology
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Sometimes, when we watch weather, we may see in the sky phenomena, which are incredibly colourful as well as geometrically formed. These phenomena are caused by sunlight. When the sunlight passes through the atmosphere, it collides with air molecules, ice crystals, or water droplets. The light refracts in these atmospheric particles, producing reflection, mirroring, or bending, which we admire. We perceive these phenomena as a rainbow, mirage, aurora borealis, or aureoles. Another, but completely different kind of phenomena in the sky, are comets. They appear from "nowhere" and are visible, sometimes for weeks, with their characteristic long tail in the night sky. Then, they disappear again into the far reaches of the universe.

Geology And Mineral Wealth
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Mineral wealth is the natural occurrence of minerals, rock, or chemical compounds that might be economically exploited. It includes oil, natural gas, coal, salt, and ores. People's need of large amounts of coal, gas, and oil is continually increasing, so that the growing population may maintain its high living standards. The question is, how long the required supply will last? What will happen, when the resources are exhausted? Where are these fuels located and what kind of burden on the environment do they represent? Our reserves at this time are deposits (exploitable accumulations of naturally occurring raw materials), which have been discovered and may be exploited.

Geology - Salt Deposits
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Salt is a vitally important basic component of our nutrition. We have to replace with food the daily loss of salt which is in our bodies and which we lose by perspiration. In the ancient world, salt was obtained by boiling and gradual evaporation of seawater. During Middle Ages, when the population had grown considerably and there was a great demand for salt, because it was used heavily to preserve food (salting), the salt was so valuable, that an entire administration was created to regulate its manufacture and commerce. Very often, salt customs fees were an important source of income.

Using the Internet to Help You Choose Between Products
[Shopping-and-Product-Reviews] So you're ready to buy your first video camera or some other electronic device and you have no clue which to choose from? Well it's fairly easy if you follow these simple tips. One easy way is to go to your favourite shop, or to several stores, and ask the salesperson. When he/she wows you into buying a certain model, write down the manufacturer (such as Panasonic), the name of the device, and most importantly the model number. Tell the salesperson you want to go home and study it on the internet. Already you might be surprised to hear that they will offer you a discount if you come back.

Fasting - Basic Strategies How to Perform a Healthy Fast
[Health-and-Fitness:Nutrition] One of the most important points of a fast is to go into and out of it slowly, and properly. During a fast your body truly does enter a different regime. Your stomach and intestines don't work like they usually do, and the last thing you want to do is to come in and/or out of such a different mode with any sort of shock. So I like to prepare my body well in advance. Since I improve on my fast every year, I will explain my last fast in spring of 2007, which was the most effortless, and probably powerful, fast yet.

Healthy Intestines From Healthy Eating
[Health-and-Fitness:Alternative] I wrote this page because of problems I once had, resolved, and I hope to research on this further. I once heard of a case where doctors had performed an autopsy on someone and found his intestines to be plugged with a cake-hard substance having the smallest pinhole for them to get through. I guess the guy must have had the worst case of the runs during the latter part of his life, and I'd assume that this condition must have been a large reason to do with his death.

Fasting -The Basic Theory Why it is Healthy for You
[Health-and-Fitness] People in the "west" gorge their mouths constantly on anything that looks or smells good to them, without any thought whatsoever of all the chemicals, pesticides and hormones that are injected into those foods. The amazing way how the body consumes and burns off all that does not belong there during a fast.

How to Cure and Prevent a Common Cold Naturally
[Health-and-Fitness] When I was a child, I remembered I would occasionally catch a cold and spend about two weeks lying in bed, suffering. My joints and muscles would ache and, although I received better treatment, being served meals in bed and having a TV in my own room, it was still a very unpleasant period. Eventually my mother blurted something about some Nobel prize winner (Linus Pauling) who wrote an article about eating lots of vitamin C to kill colds. So I tried that one time and found I managed to get the period of immense discomfort down to four days. Then at one point garlic was mentioned and, after trying that as well, I seemed to get the period down to around one and a half days.

Myth - German Was Almost the Official Language of the United States
[Reference-and-Education:Languages] As described in the history of the English language, English has many strong German roots, with roughly one third of its vocabulary drawn from the German language (another one third from Old French, and the remaining one third from Greek/Latin). Even Germans have been heard to contest this fact, but one only needs to pick up a German/English dictionary to see the similarity between the two languages. During the founding and development of America, which was basically only possible by the import of many Europeans (or the theft of Africans for the purpose of slave labour to help with its economic expansion), there even developed rumours of Germany becoming the official language of the new country. But this has proven to be an old wives tale, as dispelled in this analysis.

Ocean Currents - Their Formation and Circulation
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Analogously to the air, in the waters of the earth there are certain currents. The forces that create them are varied. There are drift currents depending on the wind, currents produced by the tide, and currents resulting from the difference of the level of density. Drift currents are surface currents, produced mainly by the wind.

The Formation of Rocks and Mountains
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The earth's surface is the result of a combination of many different changes. Forces causing these changes on the earth's surface are at work both on the exterior as well as the interior of the earth.

Ice Ages and the Formation of Glaciers
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Glaciers are great streams of ice which, in keeping with the earth's law of gravity, descend into valleys. Conditions for the formation of glaciers is a great amount of precipitation in the form of snow, which solidifies above the snow boundary, turning into large masses of ice.

The Occurrence And Prediction of Earthquakes
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Earthquakes originate always in the interior of the earth. As was mentioned before, the starting point of an earthquake is the hypocentre, while the point vertically above the hypocentre on the earth's surface is the epicentre. Viewed globally, the distribution of earthquakes is very uneven. More than half of all earthquakes occurs around the Pacific Ocean, 30 percent in the tropical sea regions.

Earthquakes - Their Cause and Devastating Effect
[Reference-and-Education:Science] More than one million earthquakes occur on the earth every year. A large majority of earthquakes will go unnoticed by most people because of their slight magnitude. On the other hand, some earthquakes are very strong and cause considerable damage. According to the distance from the earthquake epicentre, we have local earthquakes (in the region of the quake), near earthquakes (less than 1.000 km away), remote earthquakes (roughly up to 10.000 km), and so on.

Volcanoes - Their Formation and When They Erupt
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Volcanoes received their name after the Roman god of fire, Vulcan. Ancient Romans believed that one volcano near Naples was the entrance into the underworld. In the Greek mythology Hephaistos had his forge underneath the volcanoes. When the gods were angry, people were punished by the fire of the erupting volcanoes. To placate the gods, people would throw sacrifice into the lava lakes, sometimes even human sacrifice.

Formations in the Ocean
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Mid-Ocean Ridge is a system of mountains in the oceans. In the region of the ridge, the plates of the earth's crust drift away from each other. A fascinating discovery was made less then 100 years ago, when the telegraph cable between England and North America was laid down. In parallel to the coast, the Atlantic Ocean is furrowed by highlands and lowlands, similar to the surface of the land.

The Ocean Floor
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The ocean floor is divided, in accordance to its different features, into continental margin, deep-ocean basins, and mid-ocean ridges. It is further divided in accordance to the distance from the coast and the depth of the water into continental shelf, continental slope, and the abyss.

Oceans, Lakes, And Rivers
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Approximately 70 percent of the earth's surface is covered by oceans. Oceans contain 96.5 of the earth's water. Only 3.5 percent of water is freshwater. The largest supplies of fresh water are found in glaciers, snow, and underground water, only then followed by rivers and lakes.

Geology - Rocks, Mountains, And Valleys
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The earth's surface is the result of a combination of many different changes. Forces causing these changes on the earth's surface are at work both on the exterior as well as the interior of the earth.

Geology - From Erosion To Deserts
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Weathering and erosion are important geological processes, which cause changes on the earth's surface. The term weathering means decay and decomposition of the rocks. The speed of the decay depends on the type of rock, climate, and the length of time during which the rock is exposed to the atmospheric elements. There are two kinds of weathering, physical and chemical. Physical factors are freezing and melting, and the action of water streams and glaciers. They are the cause of rock decay. During chemical weathering, the minerals are chemically transformed or entirely decomposed. When the rock weathers, the erosion will carry it away and a new uncovered rock is exposed to weathering. An important factor affecting the intensity and speed of weathering is the soil, in which the mineral is found. For example, if the soil is moist or acid, the chemical weathering will be faster or slower. This means that the principal factors of weathering are climate, type of rock, soil, and time.

Rocks And Rock Cycle
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Magma, molten rock, is also called plutonic rock after the Greek god of the underworld. Magma is formed by the heat. It flows as hot, molten mass in the depths of the earth. Magma is propelled to the surface by the movement of the earth's crust, where it solidifies and turns into igneous rock. Magma rises to the surface also in the form of lava.

Rocks And Minerals
[Reference-and-Education:Science] For thousands of years the humans have been using rocks as tools. In addition, they are used for constructing roads, buildings, as well as for creating a great variety of art. Minerals are natural substances having a certain chemical composition and physical properties. These consist either of only one chemical element, such as, for example, gold or silver, in general, however, they are compounds.

Seismic Waves
[Reference-and-Education:Science] In its study of earthquakes and the interior of the earth, the science uses the knowledge obtained by means of measuring devices. The most important one is the seismograph, which registers the waves produced by shocks. It registers both the vertical and the horizontal waves.

Cause Of Earthquakes
[Reference-and-Education:Science] During the times of the Greek philosopher Aristotle, people believed that earthquakes are caused by underground fires and storms. In Japan, people thought that the earth was carried by a gigantic fish and that its movements were causing the earth to shake.

Volcanic Phenomena
[Reference-and-Education:Science] During the advanced stages of eruption, quite often there is no lava outflow, only escaping gases and steam. These processes are called volcanic exhalations. Underground water, which is heated by magma, penetrates to the surface in the form of hot springs or geysers. Geysers are boiling hot springs that expel at intervals great volume of water. This activity is accompanied by low underground rumbling.

Volcanoes Around The World
[Reference-and-Education:Science] As we have already mentioned, volcanoes are concentrated in specific areas. Eighty percent of approximately 600 active volcanoes (including volcanoes on the ocean floor) occur on the converging boundaries of the plates, 15 percent on the diverging edges, while the rest occurs within the plates. Volcanic crests situated in parallel to the boundary of two converging plates are quite prominent.

Structure and Types of Volcanoes
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Any place on the surface of the earth, which spews magma, is called volcano. In a more defined sense, it means any mountain spewing fire, which originates from the magma. Magma is a molten rock from the lower layers of the earth's crust that penetrates to the earth's surface in the form of lava. An eruption, which is the hurling of the magma and gases, passes through a volcanic vent or fissure.

Tectonic Boundaries
[Reference-and-Education:Science] According to the plate tectonics theory, the lithosphere consists of about one dozen of moving rigid plates. The movement is produced by convection flow in the earth's interior. These movements of the plate boundaries may be categorised into three types: converging boundary, diverging boundary, and transform faults.

Convective Flow And Movement Of The Crust
[Reference-and-Education:Science] According to the plate tectonics theory, the upper part of the earth's mantle, lithosphere, is not an individual layer, but consists of a number of rigid plates floating on the athenosphere. The question is, why do these plates move?

Origin Of The Continents
[Reference-and-Education:Science] When we look at the map of the world, we are immediately struck by the idea of how well Africa and South America, for example, would fit together. Southern Australia would match well with Antarctica. An analysis of rocks determined, that certain types of minerals of the same type and the same age were found in Brazil and in West Africa. These rocks were at least 2 million years old.

Earth The Planet
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Looking outward from the sun, the earth is the third planet of our solar system. Although there is water and atmosphere on other planets, the life is sustainable only on the earth. The shape of the earth is an imperfect sphere. It is slightly more convex at the equator and slightly flattened at the poles. It is enveloped in a gaseous atmosphere. The earth's body consists of rocks and metals.

The Earth's Tide
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The tide is regulated by the sun and by the moon. The tide is the daily rhythm of alternately rising and falling water. The oceans are globally connected, which means that the sea level is approximately the same all around the world. Lakes or inland seas may be situated above the sea level or below it, for example, the Dead Sea.

Seasons Of The Earth
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Seasons divide the tropical year (solar year) into four periods, which are determined by the apparent solar orbit in the sky.Their occurrence, however, is regulated by the orbit of the earth around the sun and the tilt of the polar axis against the plane of the earth's orbit. That means, that the equatorial plane (perpendicular to the connecting line of the two poles) is tilted 23,5 degrees against the plane of the earth.

The Earth's Magnetism
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The magnetic field that is measured at the earth's surface is, on one hand, the result of the flow of molten metal in the outer core of the earth (permanent field) and, on the other hand, the consequence of fields caused by the flow of electric particles in the ionosphere (the upper layer of the earth's atmosphere) and the magnetosphere. We can visualise its lines of force as enormous loops irradiating from the earth's magnetic poles. These are situated near the geographical north and south poles (today they are separated by approximately 11 degrees).

Translation Tips - Set Up Your Computer Monitor to Your Translation Workstation
[Computers-and-Technology:Personal-Tech] Translations can be a rewarding profession, because you can learn interesting things while translating interesting documents. Learn how many companies, products and services operate while translating documents about them, and you often have the freedom to work when you want and in your own environment.

Moon - The Earth's Companion
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The moon is our constant companion on our journey through the universe. Its diameter is about one-fourth of the earth's diameter. The earth and the moon are sometimes described as a "dual planet". Due to its great mass, it causes the formation of the tide. Its mass, however, is not great enough to retain atmosphere. On the day-side, the temperature on the moon reaches up to 100 degrees Celsius, while on the night-side it falls to -170 degrees Celsius.

The Earth's Structure
[Reference-and-Education:Science] A great part of the earth's interior is inaccessible. If we want to get an image of its structure, we must use indirect research methods. One of the most important methods is measuring the seismic waves, which are deflected in places where the rock composition changes. The seismographers register and analyse the speed and the depth of the echo. We also obtain information by studying the thermic, magnetic, and gravity fields of the earth. The first geological map of Great Britain was compiled in 1835 by the geologist Sir Henry de la Bech (1796-1855).

The Cenozoic of the Earth
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The Cenozoic of the earth started roughly 65 million years ago. It is divided into Tertiary (from latin, tercier, third system), and Quaternary (from Latin, kvarter, fourth system). The Tertiary era is then subdivided, in accordance with the share of the surviving kinds in the total fauna, into five epochs The earlier Cenozoic (Paleogene) is then divided into Paleocene, Eocene, and Oliigocene, while the youngar Tertiary (Neogene) is further subdivided into Miocene and Pliocene. The scientists originally concluded that the Tertiary era ended 600.000 years ago. Today, the science is of the opinion that the dividing time line between the Tertiary and the Quaternary should be somewhere between 2,5 and 2 million years ago.

Mesozoic of the Earth
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The Mesozoic of the earth lasted approximately 185 million years. It is divided into three periods: Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. It is the era of reptiles or dinosaurs. The Triassic, the first period of the earth's Mesozoic, which started approximately 248 million years ago and ended 213 million years ago, received its name from a threesome of sediments found in central Europe: coloured sandstone, limestone, and upper trias.

History of the Earth
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The earliest era, called Precambrian, encompasses the time period from the very first beginnings of the earth to the time when the first rocks appeared. These rocks contained petrified residues from which it was possible to determine the age of one layer of rocks. No petrified remnants dating back to the Precambrian proper were found. It is not possible to provide any precise information concerning the formation of the rocks of that time because, since that time, the earth has been undergoing constant changes. It is possible to classify only certain processes of the origins of the mountains (most importantly in Northern America, Scotland, and Greenland - Laurentian Plateau formation).

What is Earth Sciences and the History of It
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The name earth sciences refers in general to all scientific fields that study the earth and its atmosphere. They include geography, geology, geophysics, as well as scientific branches of mineralogy, oceanography, and meteorology. All of them are closely linked not only to each other but also to related sciences. The most important related sciences are chemistry, physics, biology, and history.

Chemistry - Alcohols to Acids
[Reference-and-Education:Science] There are a number of homologous series of hydrocarbon compounds which contain various functional groups that are derived from alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and benzene. Alcohols are hydrocarbons which contain the hydroxyl group, an -OH group, as their functional group. Alcohols are named from the corresponding molecule they derive from, then given an -ol ending, which describes the -OH functional group. The simplest alcohols are methanol (CH3OH) and ethanol (CH3CH2OH). Cyclic hydrocarbons can also form alcohols.

Chemistry - Various Raw Materials
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Fossil fuels and many other raw materials are the remains of plants and animals which lived millions of years ago. They are composed of hydrocarbons, so we call them fossil carbon compounds. Fossil fuels and other raw materials can occur as solids, usually in stratified layers of earth. Or, these materials can be liquids, as with oil. Natural gas, which is found in underground caves in often great quantities, occurs sometimes in kilometre-wide supply. Because coal is usually deposited near the surface of the Earth, it was the first fossil fuel to be used as an energy provider by our distant ancestors. Oil and natural gas have gained their importance as fuels mostly as raw materials for industry, and that in more recent times.

Chemistry - Alkenes to Alkanes
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Carbon (C) is present in most compounds, both inorganic and organic. Carbon is fairly unreactive, but at high temperatures is forms compounds with hydrogen, oxygen and various metals. Carbon is the only element with the ability to form chains and cyclical compounds of carbon atoms that line up next to each other in various lengths. This makes carbon the basis of organic chemistry. Thanks to carbon, more than 10 million known organisms survive, even thrive, on this Earth. In addition, there are around 200,000 known inorganic compounds which contain carbon.

General Health
[Health-and-Fitness] The bible says that our body is a temple of God, and that we should treat it that way. Well, a lot of people don't believe in God, but rather worship themselves, and want to look beautiful for selfish reasons. Whatever your motivation, a healthier and cleaner body will allow you to live longer, fuller, with greater vitality, and enable you to enjoy your life more.

Explanation of Time Zones and Their Creation, and Development of Our Concept of Time
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Well, we could ask what is time? To explain this, let us go to the beginning of what we can define as time. Let us presume that, before the big bang, there was only energy, and no time. We can say that God was this energy. And "then" he decided to make things, so he converted this energy into mass and hence was created the big bang, which was an explosion of the energy force turning into matter. Exploding outwards in all directions, and creating the universe, or many universes, and therefore dimensions, where time is considered the fourth dimension.

History Of Pottery And How To Make It
[Home-and-Family:Crafts-Hobbies] Pottery also includes ceramics, earthenware, stoneware and porcelain, all of which are made in potteries. Pottery is made from clay, mostly formed by the hand while it is still soft and wet, and then heated in a kiln at high temperatures to change its material quality, making it hard. The clay itself varies from region to region to produce pottery with varying characteristics. Furthermore, the clay itself can be mixed with different minerals to create different effects

Translation Tips - Staying in Touch, to Translating Outside With Your Laptop
[Self-Improvement:Techniques] One of the most important aspects of being a professional translator is to stay in touch, be easily reachable and to respond quickly to enquiries. Nowadays many translation companies will send out emails to several verified translators enquiring of their availability. The first to respond to such an enquiry can often be the one chosen to take the project. Hence it is within your interest to know when an email comes in and to respond quickly to it. One good way how to accomplish this is to divert all your emails as a text message to your mobile phone.

Translation Tips - Tips for When Translating to Counting Words and Sending Your File
[Computers-and-Technology:Software] Besides the tips on this subject mentioned at the bottom, obviously one very important aspect of translations is the choice of terminology. For this it is highly advisable to get yourself a good computer translation dictionary. When I first started translating I had an impressive library of translation dictionaries, but once I finally migrated to a computer dictionary, I marveled at the amount of time I used to spend leafing through endless pages looking up words. Not to mention that I often had to look for the same word seven times over before it sunk into my head. And not to mention that I'd often have to leaf through several dictionaries before finding the term I was happy with.

Translation Tips - OCR to Develop a Strategy Before Starting
[Computers-and-Technology:Software] Everything you need to know how to be successful in a career as a translator. And if you do plan to use a translation memory tool, you will definitely also want a good OCR program.

Translation Tips - Set up Your Surroundings to Translation Memory Tools
[Reference-and-Education:Languages] Once you have positioned yourself properly, now look around you at your immediate settings. I like to have pleasant pictures on the walls, classical music drifting in the background, lots of plants all around me, and one of my favourite... an aquarium!

Atoms and Compounds - States of Matter and the Gas Laws
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Every material is composed of a great number of atoms. The type and number of atoms determines the physical and chemical characteristics of that material. Lots of interesting information about physics and chemistry.

Malaria And How To Avoid Mosquitoes
[Reference-and-Education:Science] The reason why I prepared this page is because I was doing some research prior to my proposed tour to Turkey and read some warnings about Malaria. So I researched that as well and was absolutely fascinated regarding the geniousness of this little bug. So I will explain in shorter and hopefully more interesting detail than the wikipedia sources I drew from.

From Inorganic Carbon Compounds To Synthetic Macromolecules
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Inorganic macromolecule carbon-containing compounds are either found in nature or made synthetically. In the production of inorganic macromolecules, elements such as carbon or the compounds of silicon oxide and silicon-containing acids are bonded together to form polymers. Diamond, graphite and quartz are among the inorganic micromolecules found in nature which contain carbon. Diamond and graphite are composed of carbon atoms which are bonded together by interatomic forces.

Proteins, Fats And Sugars
[Reference-and-Education:Science] All living organisms need foodstuffs to continue living, or to continue their lives and keep surviving, thriving and in some cases, growing. Proteins, fats and sugars are all of nutritional value to living organisms. All three have a great significance as the donors of building materials and providers of energy for both plants and animals.

Production Of Iron And Aluminum, Water, Hydrogen, Alkaline Metals, Alkaline Earth Metals, And Sodium
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Another use of electrolysis is the purification of pure metals from their ores. A supply of electrical current can work to spark an oxidation or reduction process, so that materials can be extracted from their electrolytic solutions, or from a mix of molten metals. In this way, materials can be won in their pure form. Besides the electrolysis of an aqueous solution, an electrolysis can be performed on a molten mass of metals. Technically, electrolysis processes can be used to purify sodium and aluminum from a molten mass.

Enthalpy, Reaction Heat, Metals And Their Compounds
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Every chemical reaction results in a change in energy. This change in energy leads to a temperature change of the participating reactants and the surrounding area. Reaction energy is released or taken in, but in any case transferred in the form of heat energy.

Chemical Reactions And Energy, Electron Pairs, Covalent Bonds, Acids, Bases, Salts
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Modern chemistry attempts to produce new materials which through their various characteristics and properties can be better used for all types of purposes. One prerequisite of choosing the necessary chemical reactions necessary to synthesise some new product is a detailed knowledge of the structure of the reactants and their characteristic properties, including some knowledge of the course of the chemical reactions and the mechanisms which make them go and influence them.

Body And Spirit - Cleanliness Is Godliness
[News-and-Society:Religion] 1CO 6:19 Do you not know that your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit, who is in you, whom you have received from God? You are not your own; [20] you were bought at a price. Therefore honor God with your body.

Atoms and Molecules
[Reference-and-Education:Science] An explanation of these smallest particles. Models and mechanisms of how particles and other materials behave have been proposed for thousands of years. Especially in the last few centuries, however, these models have been constantly improved and specified.

What is Chemistry
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Chemistry is the science of substances, or materials, their composition and characteristics, and the reactions which take place between those substances. It is concerned with chemical elements in their pure state and when they are combined, that is, reactions of these elements and the compounds which they form.

Chemistry and Technology
[Reference-and-Education:Science] Amazing ways how chemistry is used in technology. There are over 100 chemical elements known to date, and almost all of them can form multiple compounds. Chemistry is the science of combining these elements in order to form new materials that have an ever wider use.

How to Resize Digital Camera Pictures
[Arts-and-Entertainment:Photography] A quick and easy way to prepare your pictures for the web. Ever get an email from a friend with a link to their recent travel or new baby pictures? But when you follow the link (hopefully you don't have to log in and create a new account to see them!), you see a bunch of little thumbnails which are too small to recognise, and when you click on each thumbnail, it takes forever to download each one.

History of the German Language and Nation
[Reference-and-Education:Languages] German is a member of the western branch of the Germanic family of languages, which in turn is part of the Indo-European language family. There are 90 -120 million native German speakers around the world and, according to Guinness book of world records, most translations performed in the world are into and from German. 32% of the EU-15 countries say they can converse in it.

History of Languages and the English Language
[Reference-and-Education:Languages] Interesting and humorous article on how the English language became the world's dominant one. One of the earliest written accounts of language is in Genesis, dated about one thousand BC, where God asked Adam to name the animals, "each according to their kind".

Christianity vs Islam
[News-and-Society:Religion] On my travels through Europe, driving slowly from Prague to Cyprus Turkey, the last place I spent time at before making a rapid dart to southern Turkey in order to escape the cold of winter, was Montenegro. A Christian out hold where every local was proud to boast their successful defiance against centuries of Turkish invasion.